Dr. Suhaib Ahmad Khan*
Our country is privileged to have a large number of Madrasas, which play a crucial role in contributing to the national “Education for All” program. Beyond imparting religious education, many Madrasas promote the learning of Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. This vast network provides Moazzins, Imams, Khatibs, Qazis, and Muftis, and has historically produced scholars such as Ulema, judges, teachers, administrators, scientists, and planners. Notable figures like Sher Shah Suri, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Todar Mal, and Fateh Ullah Shirazi are products of Madrasa education.
Madrasa education has benefited not only Muslims but people of various faiths, fostering national integration and cultural synthesis in a pluralistic society. For more than seven centuries, the educational system in Madrasas has effectively met the socio-economic and political needs of the country.
The word Madrasah is derived from the tri-consonantal Semitic root د-ر-س (D-R-S), meaning “to learn” or “to study.” It comes from the form مفعل(ة)) (mafʻal(ah)), which translates to “a place where something is done.” Thus, Madrasah literally means “a place where learning and studying take place.” This term has been borrowed into many Arabic-influenced languages, such as Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Persian, Turkish, Azeri, Kurdish, Indonesian, Malay, and Bosnian/Croatian, retaining the same basic meaning. In Arabic, the word مدرسة (madrasah) simply refers to any school, whether public, private, or parochial, and it applies to primary or secondary schools regardless of religious or secular affiliations, much like the English word “school.”
The first institution of madrasa education was established at the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Arqam near a hill called Safa, where Prophet Muhammad himself served as the teacher, and his early followers were the students. After the Hijrah (migration), the Madrasa of “Suffa” was founded in Madina, located on the eastern side of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi mosque. Hazrat ‘Ubada bin Samit was appointed by the Prophet as a teacher, alongside other notable students.
The curriculum of the madrasa included teachings from the Qur’an, the Hadith, fara’iz (Islamic inheritance law), tajweed (Qur’anic recitation), genealogy, and treatises on first aid. Additionally, students received training in horse riding, the art of war, handwriting, calligraphy, athletics, and martial arts. This early phase of madrasa-based education is believed to have spanned from the beginning of the Prophet’s “nabuwwat” (prophethood) until the early years of the Umayyad Caliphate.
The acquisition of Islamic knowledge is considered a fundamental duty for all Muslims. From the time of the Prophet until the eleventh century, education—primarily centered on the study of the Quran and later the Hadith (Prophetic Traditions)—was provided in mosques and was, at least in principle, accessible to all Muslims free of charge. With the rise of Sufism from the third Islamic century onward, education was also imparted in Sufi lodges, guided by Sufi masters.
Islamic education was regarded not merely as the transmission of knowledge but, more importantly, as a means to mold the character of the student. The ultimate aim was for the student to follow as closely as possible the example set by the Prophet Muhammad and his companions, emphasizing both intellectual and moral development.
Although the early Muslim community did not have a formal priesthood—since the Quran explicitly forbids intermediaries between believers and God—by the eleventh century, a class of clerics emerged, specializing in the complexities of Islamic law. This development coincided with the rise of large Muslim empires and the establishment of a distinct institution for Islamic learning, the madrasa, which became separate from the mosque.
While there is evidence of smaller madrasas existing earlier, the first state-sponsored madrasa that set the model for others was the Nizamia Madrasa in Baghdad. It was founded by the eleventh-century Seljuq Vizier Nizam-ul Mulk Hasan ibn ‘Ali, and was named after him. The Nizamia Madrasa became a key institution in Islamic education, influencing the establishment of madrasas throughout the Muslim world.
The history of Madrasa education in India dates back to the 10th century C.E., with the establishment of Maktabs and Madrasas in towns such as Sind, Debal, Mansura, and Multan by Arab traders and settlers. During the reign of Humayun, additional madrasas were founded in cities like Delhi and Agra, with Humayun’s Tomb itself once serving as an important center of instruction.
Although Akbar, Humayun’s successor, was not widely regarded as a man of letters, he demonstrated significant interest in educational and literary activities throughout his reign. Later, Aurangzeb (1658-1707 C.E.), the last of the great Mughal emperors and a learned scholar himself, greatly expanded madrasa education by establishing numerous madrasas across the country and allocating substantial funds for their development.
The emergence of the madrasa system in India can be traced to its second phase, which developed in response to the failed revolt against British rule in 1857-58. By the time the British arrived, Muslim dynasties had ruled over South Asia for 600 years, with many Muslim princes and scholars actively participating in the uprising. After the revolt, Muslim groups and scholars faced pressure and were viewed with suspicion by the British, while Western-style public administration and secular nationalist ideologies gained prominence.
In this challenging environment, religious scholars shifted their focus towards preserving and reconstructing religious knowledge and reviving Islamic religiosity. Madrasas became the cornerstone of this effort, emphasizing Islamic education as a way to protect religious identity and values in the face of British colonial influence. This marked a turning point in the evolution of madrasa education in India, aligning it with the mission of safeguarding Islamic traditions.
The Islamic school Darul Uloom Deoband was founded in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim Nanautawi (1832–1879) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi (1829–1905), modeled after a British college structure. This analogy related to its formal curriculum, paid staff, and a campus with teaching halls and hostels, marking a significant innovation in Islamic education in South Asia at the time, where few formal madrasas existed.
In theological matters, the school adopted the dars-e-nizami, a traditional Islamic curriculum formulated in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries by two scholars from Lucknow, Mulla Qutb al-Din Sihalwi (d. 1691) and his son Mulla Nizam al-Din of Firangi Mahal (d. 1748), after whom the curriculum is named. This curriculum became a hallmark of Islamic teaching across the region.
Over time, many Arabic madrasas have found themselves balancing the need to maintain their identity as centers of Islamic studies and culture while adapting to the evolving needs of the communities they serve. The minority status of the Muslim community, and the designation of madrasas as ‘minority institutions’ with constitutionally mandated privileges, has added complexity to their role in the country.
Following the fall of the Mughal Empire, Shah Waliullah of Delhi led the first movement among the Ulema (Islamic scholars) to restore the glory of Islam and reclaim political power. He established a madrasa in Delhi with a focus on religious disciplines. Another key center of Muslim learning in Delhi, headed by Maulana Khairabadi, incorporated secular subjects into its curriculum. Additionally, Lucknow became an important hub of higher education, contributing to the intellectual and educational development of the Muslim community in India.
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In the presidencies of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa established by the East India Company, Arabic and Persian schools continued to operate as they had before. However, with the gradual decline of Muslim rule, particularly the Mughal Empire, and its replacement by British administration, the madrasa education system faced significant challenges. The transfer of power was not merely a change in political authority; it represented the dismantling of a way of life, culture, and a vital source of empowerment for the Muslim community across social, economic, cultural, and emotional domains.
The madrasa education system of the time was tailored to prepare individuals for the existing way of life, which was now undergoing profound transformation. As British rule progressed, madrasas were among the first social institutions to experience the impact of these sweeping changes, confronting the challenges brought about by a shifting political and cultural landscape.
In Islamic history, madrasas have been instrumental in shaping the destiny of the Muslim ummah from the very inception of Islam. These institutions have made significant contributions to religious education, allowing Muslims to gain a profound understanding of their faith. Beyond addressing the religious needs of Muslims, madrasas have also greatly contributed to various fields of knowledge and art, aiming to cultivate well-rounded individuals in every aspect.
Madrasas were among the pioneers in adopting and generalizing modern educational practices. Their services are well-established and significant. In India, madrasas have played a crucial role in upholding human, Islamic, and social values. They have been vital in preserving Islamic practices, publishing and disseminating Islamic literature, safeguarding the Islamic faith, and fostering cultural and civilizational development, alongside contributing to the broader development of the country. The invaluable services rendered by madrasas are profound and cannot be overlooked or forgotten.
*The author is currently associated with a multinational company and serves on the editorial board as an Associate Editor of the multi-lingual journal “Naqeebul Hind.”
Dr. Suhaib A. Kahn
7, Jaswant Apartment
16-Jamia Nagar Okhla
New Delhi – 25
INDIA